Skip to content Skip to navigation

Article: Additive diversity partitioning in palaeobiology: revisiting Sepkoski's question

Publication: Palaeontology
Volume: 53
Part: 6
Publication Date: November 2010
Page(s): 1237 – 1254
Author(s): Steven M. Holland
Addition Information

How to Cite

HOLLAND, S. M. 2010. Additive diversity partitioning in palaeobiology: revisiting Sepkoski's question. Palaeontology, 53, 6, 1237–1254.

Online Version Hosted By

Wiley Online Library
Get Article: Wiley Online Library [Pay-to-View Access] |

References

  • ALLAN, J. D. 1975. Components of diversity. Oecologia, 18, 359–367.
  • ALROY, J. 2010. Geographic, environmental, and intrinsic biotic controls on Phanerozoic marine diversification. Palaeontology, 53, 1211–1235.
  • ALROY, J., MARSHALL, C. R., BAMBACH, R. K., BEZUSKO, K., FOOTE, M., FURSICH, F. T., HANSEN, T. A., HOLLAND, S. M., IVANY, L. C., JABLONSKI, D., JACOBS, D. K., JONES, D. C., KOSNIK, M. A., LIDGARD, S., LOW, S., MILLER, A. I., NOVACK-GOTTSHALL, P. M., OLSZEWSKI, T. D., PATZKOWSKY, M. E., RAUP, D. M., ROY, K., SEPKOSKI, J. J., SOMMERS, M. G., WAGNER, P. J. and WEBBER, A. 2001. Effects of sampling standardization on estimates of Phanerozoic marine diversification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 6261–6266.
  • ALROY, J., ABERHAN, M., BOTTJER, D. J., FOOTE, M., FÜRSICH, F. T., HARRIES, P. J., HENDY, A. J. W., HOLLAND, S. M., IVANY, L. C., KIESSLING, W., KOSNIK, M. A., MARSHALL, C. R., MCGOWAN, A., MILLER, A. I., OLSZEWSKI, T. D., PATZKOWSKY, M. E., PETERS, S. E., VILLIER, L., WAGNER, P. J., BONUSO, N., BORKOW, P., BRENNEIS, B., CLAPHAM, M., FALL, L., FERGUSON, C., HANSON, V., KRUG, A., LAYOU, K., LECKEY, E., NURNBERG, S., POWERS, C., SESSA, J., SIMPSON, C., TOMASOVYCH, A. and VISAGGI, C. 2008. Phanerozoic trends in the global diversity of marine invertebrates. Science, 321, 97–100.
  • BAMBACH, R. K. 1977. Species richness in marine benthic habitats through the Phanerozoic. Paleobiology, 3, 152–167.
  • BAMBACH, R. K., BUSH, A. M. and ERWIN, D. H. 2007. Autecology and the filling of ecospace – key metazoan radiations. Palaeontology, 50, 1–22.
  • BELMAKER, J., ZIV, Y., SHASHAR, N. and CONNOLLY, S. R. 2008. Regional variation in the hierarchical partitioning of diversity in coral-dwelling fishes. Ecology, 89, 2829–2840.
  • BENEDICK, S., HILL, J. K., MUSTAFFA, N., CHEY, V. K., MARYATI, M., SEARLE, J. B., SCHILTHUIZEN, M. and HAMER, K. C. 2006. Impacts of rain forest fragmentation on butterflies in northern Borneo: species richness, turnover and the value of small fragments. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 967–977.
  • BOLTZMANN, L. 1866. Über die Mechanische Bedeutung des Zweiten Hauptsatzes der Wrmetheorie. Wiener Berichte, 53, 195–220.
  • BOONZAAIER, C., MCGEOCH, M. A. and PARR, C. L. 2007. Fine-scale temporal and spatial dynamics of epigaeic ants in Fynbos: sampling implications. African Entomology, 15, 1–11.
  • BROCKHURST, M. A., RAINEY, P. B. and BUCKLING, A. 2004. The effect of spatial heterogeneity and parasites on the evolution of host diversity. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 271, 107–111.
  • BUCKLEY, L. B. and JETZ, W. 2008. Linking global turnover of species and environments. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, 105, 17836–17841.
  • BUSH, A. M. and BAMBACH, R. K. 2004. Did alpha diversity increase during the Phanerozoic? Lifting the veils of taphonomic, latitudinal, and environmental biases. Journal of Geology, 112, 625–642.
  • CADOTTE, M. W. and FUKAMI, T. 2005. Dispersal, spatial scale, and species diversity in a hierarchically structured experimental landscape. Ecology Letters, 8, 548–557.
  • CHALCRAFT, D. R., COX, S. B., CLARK, C., CLELAND, E. E., SUDING, K. N., WEIHER, E. and PENNINGTON, D. 2008. Scale-dependent responses of plant biodiversity to nitrogen enrichment. Ecology, 89, 2165–2171.
  • CHANDY, S., GIBSON, D. J. and ROBERTSON, P. A. 2006. Additive partitioning of diversity across hierarchical spatial scales in a forested landscape. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 792–801.
  • CHIARUCCI, A., BACARO, G., VANNINI, A. and ROCCHINI, D. 2008. Quantifying species richness at multiple spatial scales in a Natura 2000 network. Community Ecology, 9, 185–192.
  • CORNELL, H. V., KARLSON, R. H. and HUGHES, T. P. 2007. Scale-dependent variation in coral community similarity across sites, islands, and island groups. Ecology, 88, 1707–1715.
  • COUTERON, P. and PELISSIER, R. 2004. Additive apportioning of species diversity: towards more sophisticated models and analyses. Oikos, 107, 215–221.
  • CRAMPTON, J. S., FOOTE, M., BEU, A. G., MAXWELL, P. A., COOPER, R. A., MATCHAM, L., MARSHALL, B. A. and JONES, C. M. 2006. The ark was full! Constant to declining shallow marine biodiversity on an isolated midlatitude continent. Paleobiology, 32, 509–532.
  • CRIST, T. O., VEECH, J. A., GERING, J. C. and SUMMERVILLE, K. S. 2003. Partitioning species diversity across landscapes and regions: a hierarchical analysis of , β, and diversity. The American Naturalist, 162, 734–743.
  • DE BELLO, F., THUILLER, W., LEPS, J., CHOLER, P., CLEMENT, J. C., MACEK, P., SEBASTIA, M. T. and LAVOREL, S. 2009. Partitioning of functional diversity reveals the scale and extent of trait convergence and divergence. Journal of Vegetation Science, 20, 475–486.
  • DEBLAUWE, I., DIBOG, L., MISSOUP, A. D., DUPAIN, J., VAN ELSACKER, L., DEKONINCK, W., BONTE, D. and HENDRICKX, F. 2008. Spatial scales affecting termite diversity in tropical lowland rainforest: a case study in southeast Cameroon. African Journal of Ecology, 46, 5–18.
  • DEVRIES, P. J. and WALLA, T. R. 2001. Species diversity and community structure in neotropical fruit-feeding butterflies. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 74, 1–15.
  • DEVRIES, P. J., WALLA, T. R. and GREENEY, H. F. 1999. Species diversity in spatial and temporal dimensions of fruit-feeding butterflies from two Ecuadorian rainforests. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 68, 333–353.
  • ECONOMO, E. P. and KEITT, T. H. 2008. Species diversity in neutral metacommunities: a network approach. Ecology Letters, 11, 52–62.
  • EROS, T. 2007. Partitioning the diversity of riverine fish: the roles of habitat types and non-native species. Freshwater Biology, 52, 1400–1415.
  • FISHER, R. A. 1943. The relation between the number of species and the number of individuals in a random sample of an animal population. Part 3. A theoretical distribution for the apparent abundance of different species. Journal of Animal Ecology, 12, 54–58.
  • FLEISHMAN, E., BETRUS, C. J. and BLAIR, R. B. 2003. Effects of spatial scale and taxonomic group on partitioning of butterfly and bird diversity in the Great Basin, USA. Landscape Ecology, 18, 675–685.
  • FLORES-PALACIOS, A. and GARCIA-FRANCO, J. G. 2008. Habitat isolation changes the beta diversity of the vascular epiphyte community in lower montane forest, Veracruz, Mexico. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17, 191–207.
  • FREESTONE, A. L. and INOUYE, B. D. 2006. Dispersal limitation and environmental heterogeneity shape scale-dependent diversity patterns in plant communities. Ecology, 87, 2425–2432.
  • GABRIEL, D., ROSCHEWITZ, I., TSCHARNTKE, T. and THIES, C. 2006. Beta diversity at different spatial scales: plant communities in organic and conventional agriculture. Ecological Applications, 16, 2011–2021.
  • GASTON, K. J. and BLACKBURN, T. M. 2000. Pattern and process in macroecology. Blackwell Science, Oxford, 377 pp.
  • GERING, J. C., CRIST, T. O. and VEECH, J. A. 2003. Additive partitioning of species diversity across multiple spatial scales: implications for regional conservation of biodiversity. Conservation Biology, 17, 488–499.
  • GIBBS, J. W. 1902. Elementary principles in statistical mechanics. Charles Scribner’s sons, New York, NY, 207 pp.
  • GOTELLI, N. J. and COLWELL, R. K. 2001. Quantifying biodiversity: procedures and pitfalls in the measurement and comparison of species richness. Ecology Letters, 4, 379–391.
  • GREENSTREET, S. P. R. and PIET, G. J. 2008. Assessing the sampling effort required to estimate alpha species diversity in the groundfish assemblages of the North Sea. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 364, 181–197.
  • GUADAGNIN, D. L., PETER, A. S., PERELLO, L. F. C. and MALTCHIK, L. 2005. Spatial and temporal patterns of waterbird assemblages in fragmented wetlands of southern Brazil. Waterbirds, 28, 261–404.
  • HAMMER, Ø. and HARPER, D. A. T. 2005. Paleontological data analysis. Wiley-Blackwell, New York, 368 pp.
  • HARNIK, P. G. 2009. Unveiling rare diversity by integrating museum, literature, and field data. Paleobiology, 35, 190–208.
  • HEIM, N. A. 2008. A null biogeographic model for quantifying the role of migration in shaping patterns of global taxonomic richness and differentiation diversity, with implications for Ordovician biogeography. Paleobiology, 34, 195–209.
  • HEIM, N. A. 2009. Stability of regional brachiopod diversity structure across the Mississippian/Pennsylvanian boundary. Paleobiology, 35, 393–412.
  • HENDRICKX, F., MAELFAIT, J. P., VAN WINGERDEN, W., SCHWEIGER, O., SPEELMANS, M., AVIRON, S., AUGENSTEIN, I., BILLETER, R., BAILEY, D., BUKACEK, R., BUREL, F., DIEKÖTTER, T., DIRKSEN, J., HERZOG, F., LIIRA, J., ROUBALOVA, M., VANDOMME, V. and BUGTER, R. 2007. How landscape structure, land-use intensity and habitat diversity affect components of total arthropod diversity in agricultural landscapes. Journal of Applied Ecology, 44, 340–351.
  • HENDY, A. J. W. 2009. The influence of lithification on Cenozoic marine biodiversity trends. Paleobiology, 35, 51–62.
  • HIRAO, T., MURAKAMI, M., KASHIZAKI, A. and TANABE, S. I. 2007. Additive apportioning of lepidopteran and coleopteran species diversity across spatial and temporal scales in a cool-temperate deciduous forest in Japan. Ecological Entomology, 32, 627–636.
  • HOFER, G., WAGNER, H. H., HERZOG, F. and EDWARDS, P. J. 2008. Effects of topographic variability on the scaling of plant species richness in gradient dominated landscapes. Ecography, 31, 131–139.
  • HOLLAND, S. M. 2000. The quality of the fossil record – a sequence stratigraphic perspective. 148–168. In ERWIN, D. H. and WING, S. L. (eds). Deep time: Paleobiology’s perspective. The Paleontological Society, Lawrence, KS, 371 pp.
  • HOLLAND, S. M. and PATZKOWSKY, M. E. 2007. Gradient ecology of a biotic invasion: biofacies of the type Cincinnatian Series (Upper Ordovician), Cincinnati, Ohio region, USA. Palaios, 22, 392–407.
  • HOLLAND, S. M., MILLER, A. I., MEYER, D. L. and DATTILO, B. F. 2001. The detection and importance of subtle biofacies within a single lithofacies: the Upper Ordovician Kope Formation of the Cincinnati, Ohio region. Palaios, 16, 205–217.
  • HUBBELL, S. P. 2001. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography. Monographs in Population Biology 32, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 375 pp.
  • HULME, P. E. and BREMNER, E. T. 2006. Assessing the impact of Impatiens glandulifera on riparian habitats: partitioning diversity components following species removal. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 43–50.
  • HURLBERT, S. H. 1971. The nonconcept of species diversity: a critique and alternative parameters. Ecology, 52, 577–586.
  • JABLONSKI, D. 2009. Paleontology in the twenty-first century. 471–517. In SEPKOSKI, D. and RUSE, M. (eds). The paleobiological revolution: essays on the growth of modern paleontology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL, 584 pp.
  • JABLONSKI, D., ROY, K., VALENTINE, J. W., PRICE, R. and ANDERSON, P. 2003. The impact of the pull of the recent on the history of marine diversity. Science, 300, 1133–1135.
  • JOST, L. 2006. Entropy and diversity. Oikos, 113, 363–375.
  • KATTAN, G. H., FRANCO, P., SAAVEDRA-RODRIGUEZ, C. A., VALDERRAMA, C., ROJAS, V., OSORIO, D. and MARTINEZ, J. 2006. Spatial components of bird diversity in the Andes of Colombia: implications for designing a regional reserve system. Conservation Biology, 20, 1203–1211.
  • KIDWELL, S. M. 2008. Ecological fidelity of open marine molluscan death assemblages: effects of post-mortem transportation, shelf health, and taphonomic inertia. Lethaia, 41, 199–217.
  • KIESSLING, W., SIMPSON, C. and FOOTE, M. 2010. Reefs as cradles of evolution and sources of biodiversity in the Phanerozoic. Science, 327, 196–198.
  • KIFLAWI, M. and SPENCER, M. 2004. Confidence intervals and hypothesis testing for beta diversity. Ecology, 85, 2895–2900.
  • KLIMEK, S., MARINI, L., HOFMANN, M. and ISSELSTEIN, J. 2008. Additive partitioning of plant diversity with respect to grassland management regime, fertilisation and abiotic factors. Basic and Applied Ecology, 9, 626–634.
  • KOLEFF, P., GASTON, K. J. and LENNON, J. J. 2003. Measuring beta diversity for presence-absence data. Journal of Animal Ecology, 72, 367–382.
  • KOSNIK, M. A. and WAGNER, P. J. 2006. Effects of taxon abundance distributions on the number of taxa sampled. Evolutionary Ecology, 8, 195–211.
  • KOWALEWSKI, M., GÜRS, K., NEBELSICK, J. H., OSCHMANN, W., PILLER, W. E. and HOFFMEISTER, A. P. 2002. Multivariate hierarchical analyses of Miocene mollusk assemblages of Europe: Palaeogeographic, palaeoecological, and biostratigraphic implications. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 114, 239–256.
  • KOWALEWSKI, M., KIESSLING, W., ABERHAN, M., FÜRSICH, F. T., SCARPONI, D., BARBOUR WOOD, S. L. and HOFFMEISTER, A. P. 2006. Ecological, taxonomic, and taphonomic components of the post-Paleozoic increase in sample-level species diversity of marine benthos. Paleobiology, 32, 533–561.
  • KRUG, A. Z., JABLONSKI, D. and VALENTINE, J. W. 2008. Species-genus ratios reflect a global history of diversification and range expansion in marine bivalves. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 275, 1117–1123.
  • LANDE, R. 1996. Statistics and partitioning of species diversity, and similarity among multiple communities. Oikos, 76, 5–13.
  • LAYOU, K. 2007. A quantitative null model of additive diversity partitioning: examining the response of beta diversity to extinction. Paleobiology, 33, 116–124.
  • LEVINS, R. 1968. Evolution in changing environments, some theoretical explorations. Monographs in Population Biology Number 2, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 120 pp.
  • LEWONTIN, R. C. 1972. The apportionment of human diversity. Evolutionary Biology, 6, 381–398.
  • LINDO, Z. and WINCHESTER, N. N. 2008. Scale dependent diversity patterns in arboreal and terrestrial oribatid mite (Acari : Oribatida) communities. Ecography, 31, 53–60.
  • LLOYD, M. and GHELARDI, R. J. 1964. A table for calculating the “equitability” component of species diversity. Journal of Animal Ecology, 33, 217–225.
  • MACARTHUR, R. H. 1972. Geographical ecology: patterns in the distribution of species. Harper and Row, New York, NY, 269 pp.
  • MACARTHUR, R. H. and WILSON, E. O. 1967. The theory of island biogeography. Monographs in Population Biology, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 224 pp.
  • MACARTHUR, R. H., RECHER, H. and CODY, M. 1966. On the relation between habitat selection and species diversity. American Naturalist, 100, 319–332.
  • MARGALEF, D. R. 1957. Information theory in ecology. Memorias de la Real Academia de Ciencias y Artes de Barcelona, 23, 378–449.
  • MARGALEF, D. R. 1958. Information theory in ecology. General Systems, 3, 36–71.
  • MCGOWAN, A. J. and SMITH, A. B. 2008. Are global Phanerozoic marine diversity curves truly global? A study of the relationship between regional rock records and global Phanerozoic marine diversity. Paleobiology, 34, 80–103.
  • MILLER, A. I. 1997. Dissecting global diversity patterns: examples from the Ordovician radiation. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 28, 85–104.
  • MILLER, A. I. and FOOTE, M. 2009. Epicontinental seas versus open-ocean settings: the kinetics of mass extinction and origination. Science, 326, 1106–1109.
  • MILLER, A. I., ABERHAN, M., BUICK, D., BULINSKI, K., FERGUSON, C. A., HENDY, A. J. W. and KIESSLING, W. 2009. Phanerozoic trends in the global geographic disparity of marine biotas. Paleobiology, 35, 612–630.
  • MOUQUET, N. and LOREAU, M. 2003. Community patterns in source-sink metacommunities. American Naturalist, 162, 544–557.
  • MURAKAMI, M., ICHIE, T. and HIRAO, T. 2008. Beta-diversity of lepidopteran larval communities in a Japanese temperate forest: effects of phenology and tree species. Ecological Research, 23, 179–187.
  • NAVARRETE, D. and HALFFTER, G. 2008. Dung beetle (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Scarabaeinae) diversity in continuous forest, forest fragments and cattle pastures in a landscape of Chiapas, Mexico: the effects of anthropogenic changes. Biodiversity and Conservation, 17, 2869–2898.
  • NOVACK-GOTTSHALL, P. M. 2007. Using a theoretical ecospace to quantify the ecological diversity of Paleozoic and modern marine biotas. Paleobiology, 33, 274–295.
  • OKSANEN, J., KINDT, R., LEGENDRE, P., O’HARA, B., SIMPSON, G. L., SOLYMOS, P., STEVENS, M. H. H. and WAGNER, H. 2009. Vegan: community ecology package. R package version 1.15-3. http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=vegan.
  • OKUDA, T., NODA, T., YAMAMOTO, T., ITO, N. and NAKAOKA, M. 2004. Latitudinal gradient of species diversity: multi-scale variability in rocky intertidal sessile assemblages along the Northwestern Pacific coast. Population Ecology, 46, 159–170.
  • OKUDA, T., NODA, T., YAMAMOTO, T., HORI, M. and NAKAOKA, M. 2009. Latitudinal gradients in species richness in assemblages of sessile animals in rocky intertidal zone: mechanisms determining scale-dependent variability. Journal of Animal Ecology, 78, 328–337.
  • OLSZEWSKI, T. D. 2004. A unified mathematical framework for the measurement of richness and evenness within and among multiple communities. Oikos, 104, 377–387.
  • PATZKOWSKY, M. E. and HOLLAND, S. M. 1993. Biotic response to a Middle Ordovician paleoceanographic event in eastern North America. Geology, 21, 619–622.
  • PATZKOWSKY, M. E. and HOLLAND, S. M. 1997. Patterns of turnover in Middle and Upper Ordovician brachiopods of the eastern United States: a test of coordinated stasis. Paleobiology, 23, 420–443.
  • PATZKOWSKY, M. E. and HOLLAND, S. M. 2007. Diversity partitioning of a Late Ordovician marine biotic invasion: controls on diversity in regional ecosystems. Paleobiology, 33, 295–309.
  • PEGG, M. A. and TAYLOR, R. M. 2007. Fish species diversity among spatial scales of altered temperate rivers. Journal of Biogeography, 34, 549–558.
  • PETERS, S. E. 2004. Evenness of Cambrian–Ordovician benthic marine communities in North America. Paleobiology, 30, 324–346.
  • PETERS, S. E. and FOOTE, M. 2001. Biodiversity in the Phanerozoic: a reinterpretation. Paleobiology, 27, 583–601.
  • PINEDA, E. and HALFFTER, G. 2004. Species diversity and habitat fragmentation: frogs in a tropical montane landscape in Mexico. Biological Conservation, 117, 499–508.
  • POLLEY, H. W., DERNER, J. D. and WILSEY, B. J. 2005. Patterns of plant species diversity in remnant and restored tallgrass prairies. Restoration Ecology, 13, 480–487.
  • POWELL, M. G. and KOWALEWSKI, M. 2002. Increase in evenness and sampled alpha diversity through the Phanerozoic: comparison of early Paleozoic and Cenozoic marine fossil assemblages. Geology, 30, 331–334.
  • PRICE, A. R. G. 2002. Simultaneous ‘hotspots’ and ‘coldspots’ of marine biodiversity and implications for global conservation. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 241, 23–27.
  • RAUP, D. M. 1972. Taxonomic diversity during the Phanerozoic. Science, 177, 1065–1071.
  • RAUP, D. M. 1975. Taxonomic diversity estimation using rarefaction. Paleobiology, 1, 333–342.
  • RAUP, D. M. 1976. Species diversity in the Phanerozoic: an interpretation. Paleobiology, 4, 1–15.
  • RIBEIRO, D. B., PRADO, P. I., BROWN, K. S. Jr and FREITAS, A. V. L. 2008. Additive partitioning of butterfly diversity in a fragmented landscape: importance of scale and implications for conservation. Diversity and Distributions, 14, 961–968.
  • RICOTTA, C. and BURRASCANO, S. 2008. Beta diversity for functional ecology. Preslia, 80, 61–72.
  • RODRIGUEZ-ZARAGOZA, F. A. and ARIAS-GONZALEZ, J. E. 2008. Additive diversity partitioning of reef fishes across multiple spatial scales. Caribbean Journal of Science, 44, 90–101.
  • ROSENZWEIG, M. L. 1995. Species diversity in space and time. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 436 pp.
  • ROY, K., JABLONSKI, D. and VALENTINE, J. W. 2000. Dissecting latitudinal diversity gradients: functional groups and clades of marine bivalves. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, B, 267, 293–299.
  • RUNDLOF, M., BENGTSSON, J. and SMITH, H. G. 2008. Local and landscape effects of organic farming on butterfly species richness and abundance. Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 813–820.
  • SCARPONI, D. and KOWALEWSKI, M. 2007. Sequence stratigraphic anatomy of diversity patterns: Late Quaternary benthic mollusks of the Po Plain, Italy. Palaios, 22, 296–305.
  • SEPKOSKI, J. J. Jr 1988. Alpha, beta, or gamma: where does all the diversity go? Paleobiology, 14, 221–234.
  • SEPKOSKI, J. J. JR 1997. Biodiversity: past, present, and future. Journal of Paleontology, 71, 533–539.
  • SEPKOSKI, J. J. JR 2002. A compendium of fossil marine animal genera, edited by D. Jablonski and M. Foote. Bulletins of American Paleontology, 363, 1–560.
  • SEPKOSKI, J. J. JR, BAMBACH, R. K., RAUP, D. M. and VALENTINE, J. W. 1981. Phanerozoic marine diversity and the fossil record. Nature, 293, 435–437.
  • SHANNON, C. E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical Journal, 27, 379–432, 623–656.
  • SHANNON, C. E. and WEAVER, W. 1949. The mathematical theory of communication. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, IL, 125 pp.
  • SIMPSON, E. H. 1949. Measurement of diversity. Nature, 163, 688.
  • SMITH, A. B. 2001. Large-scale heterogeneity of the fossil record: implications for Phanerozoic biodiversity studies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 356, 351–367.
  • SMITH, A. B. 2007. Marine diversity through the Phanerozoic: problems and prospects. Journal of the Geological Society, 164, 731–745.
  • SMITH, A. B., GALE, A. S. and MONKS, N. E. A. 2001. Sea-level change and rock record bias in the Cretaceous: a problem for extinction and biodiversity studies. Paleobiology, 27, 241–253.
  • SOBEK, S., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I., SCHERBER, C. and TSCHARNTKE, T. 2009. Spatiotemporal changes of beetle communities across a tree diversity gradient. Diversity and Distributions, 15, 660–670.
  • SPELLERBERG, I. F. and FEDOR, P. J. 2003. A tribute to Claude Shannon (1916–2001) and a plea for more rigorous use of species richness, species diversity and the ‘Shannon-Wiener’ Index. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 12, 177–179.
  • STENDERA, S. E. S. and JOHNSON, R. K. 2005. Additive partitioning of aquatic invertebrate species diversity across multiple spatial scales. Freshwater Biology, 50, 1360–1375.
  • SUMMERVILLE, K. S. and CRIST, T. O. 2005. Temporal patterns of species accumulation in a survey of Lepidoptera in a beech-maple forest. Biodiversity and Conservation, 14, 3393–3406.
  • SUMMERVILLE, K. S., BOULWARE, M. J., VEECH, J. A. and CRIST, T. O. 2003a. Spatial variation in species diversity and composition of forest Lepidoptera in eastern deciduous forests of North America. Conservation Biology, 17, 1045–1057.
  • SUMMERVILLE, K. S., CRIST, T. O., KAHN, J. K. and GERING, J. C. 2003b. Community structure of arboreal caterpillars within and among four tree species of the eastern deciduous forest. Ecological Entomology, 28, 747–757.
  • SUMMERVILLE, K. S., WILSON, T. D., VEECH, J. A. and CRIST, T. O. 2006. Do body size and diet breadth affect partitioning of species diversity? A test with forest Lepidoptera. Diversity and Distributions, 12, 91–99.
  • TOMASOVYCH, A. and KIDWELL, S. M. 2009. Fidelity of variation in species composition and diversity partitioning by death assemblages: time-averaging transfers diversity from beta to alpha levels. Paleobiology, 35, 94–118.
  • TYLIANAKIS, J. M., KLEIN, A. M. and TSCHARNTKE, T. 2005. Spatiotemporal variation in the diversity of hymenoptera across a tropical habitat gradient. Ecology, 86, 3296–3302.
  • TYLIANAKIS, J. M., KLEIN, A. M., LOZADA, T. and TSCHARNTKE, T. 2006. Spatial scale of observation affects alpha, beta and gamma diversity of cavity-nesting bees and wasps across a tropical land-use gradient. Journal of Biogeography, 33, 1295–1304.
  • VALENTINE, J. W. 1970. How many marine invertebrate fossil species? A new approximation. Journal of Paleontology, 44, 410–415.
  • VALENTINE, J. W. 1971. Plate tectonics and shallow marine diversity and endemism: an actualistic model. Systematic Zoology, 20, 253–264.
  • VALENTINE, J. W., FOIN, T. and PEART, D. 1978. A provincial model of Phanerozoic marine diversity. Paleobiology, 4, 55–66.
  • VALENTINE, J. W., JABLONSKI, D., KRUG, A. Z. and ROY, K. 2008. Incumbency, diversity, and latitudinal gradients. Paleobiology, 34, 169–178.
  • VEECH, J. A. 2005. Analyzing patterns of species diversity as departures from random expectations. Oikos, 108, 149–155.
  • VEECH, J. A. and CRIST, T. O. 2007. Habitat and climate heterogeneity maintain beta-diversity of birds among landscapes within ecoregions. Global Ecology and Biogeography, 16, 650–656.
  • VEECH, J. A., SUMMERVILLE, K. S., CRIST, T. O. and GERING, J. C. 2002. The additive partitioning of species diversity: recent revival of an old idea. Oikos, 99, 3–9.
  • VERDU, J. R., MORENO, C. E., SANCHEZ-ROJAS, G., NUMA, C., GALANTE, E. and HALFFTER, G. 2007. Grazing promotes dung beetle diversity in the xeric landscape of a Mexican Biosphere Reserve. Biological Conservation, 140, 308–317.
  • VERMEIJ, G. J. and LEIGHTON, L. R. 2003. Does global diversity mean anything? Paleobiology, 29, 3–7.
  • WAGNER, H. H., WILDI, O. and EWALD, K. C. 2000. Additive partitioning of plant species diversity in an agricultural mosaic landscape. Landscape Ecology, 15, 219–227.
  • WAGNER, H. H., KOSNIK, M. A. and LIDGARD, S. 2006. Abundance distributions imply elevated complexity of post-Paleozoic marine ecosystems. Science, 314, 1289–1292.
  • WAGNER, H. H., ABERHAN, M., HENDY, A. J. W. and KIESSLING, W. 2007. The effect of taxonomic standardization on sampling-standardized estimates of historical diversity. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 274, 439–444.
  • WALLA, T. R., ENGEN, S., DEVRIES, P. J. and LANDE, R. 2004. Modeling vertical beta-diversity in tropical butterfly communities. Oikos, 107, 610–618.
  • WHITTAKER, R. H. 1956. Vegetation of the Great Smoky Mountains. Ecological Monographs, 26, 1–80.
  • WHITTAKER, R. H. 1960. Vegetation of the Siskiyou Mountains, Oregon and California. Ecological Monographs, 30, 279–338.
  • WHITTAKER, R. H. 1972. Evolution and measurement of species diversity. Taxon, 21, 213–251.
  • WHITTAKER, R. H. 1977. Evolution of species diversity in land communities. Evolutionary Biology, 10, 1–67.
  • WIENER, N. 1948. Cybernetics. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 194 pp.
  • WILSEY, B. J., MARTIN, L. M. and POLLEY, H. W. 2005. Predicting plant extinction based on species-area curves in prairie fragments with high beta richness. Conservation Biology, 19, 1835–1841.
PalAss Go! URL: http://go.palass.org/5fb | Twitter: Share on Twitter | Facebook: Share on Facebook | Google+: Share on Google+